As she progressed through her education, studying how poverty affects children, she'd go home and describe research in the field to her mom and her friends. The looks on their faces seemed to be saying "Is that really everything? Is that all it says? Is that what you think?"
Meriah DeJoseph researches the specialized strengths that may develop in people who grew up in adversity. (Image credit: Meriah DeJoseph)
This helped motivate DeJoseph, who is now a developmental psychologist at University of Denver, to try to tell the other side of the story. "I felt like there was more to say about children and family strengths in those contexts that just wasn't being told yet."
That is not to say that growing up in poverty is all flowers and roses, DeJoseph stressed. "Growing up in poverty is very hard and does cause a lot of challenges and does increase risk for things that we don't want," she said. But "the other side of it was missing." It's about capturing the full picture, not romanticizing hardship, she added.
They hope that an understanding of these skills can eventually lead to changes in the educational system that will help narrow achievement gaps between those who grew up facing adversity and those who didn't.
However, under the prevailing "deficit model" of childhood adversity, experiencing multiple stressors as a young child does nothing but harm brain development. The fact that children from disadvantaged backgrounds score lower, on average, on standardized tests of various cognitive abilities has been used to support this view.
Meriah DeJoseph, developmental psychologist at University of Denver
What's more, it "doesn't make any sense from an evolutionary perspective," he said. "Stress should not so much impair development as direct or regulate it towards strategies that are adaptive under stressful conditions."
Instead, Ellis and his colleagues have developed what they call an evolutionary developmental perspective. Unlike the resilience or deficit models, both of which frame adversity as solely negative, their framework looks at adversity as a selective pressure that pushes people to develop specialized abilities so they are better equipped to thrive in the environments they grew up in.
Humans evolved to be adaptable
From birth, an infant's biology, psychology and behavior are fine-tuned to suit the environment in which they are raised. This adaptability is partly due to genes being switched on differently depending on the environment the individual grows up in during sensitive periods of development, like in early childhood. As a result, people become specialized to their particular setting.
In principle, that means that individuals who face adversity early in life are "stress-adapted," meaning they've developed skills and traits that allow them to survive in their harsh and unpredictable settings, such as facing housing instability or living with an abusive caregiver.
A boy collects food from a food pantry. Researchers are just starting to understand the full spectrum of changes that come with growing up in dangerous, deprived or unpredictable environments. (Image credit: grandriver via Getty Images)But what are these skills? Research has shown a handful of abilities that seem to be enhanced in people who were raised in stressful or chaotic environments. Psychologists initially called these "hidden talents."
For example, the ability to shift attention quickly may be important when you don't know when or where the next danger could be. "The assumption is, when you're in an unpredictable world where, again, threat can come without warning, where things can change unpredictably, that it's really important to be able to kind of fluidly unstick your attention from one thing and shift to something else, as opposed to being really good at sustaining attention," Ellis said.
Suppressing impulses and resisting temptations based on the promise of future benefits might not be helpful in changeable environments, where rewards are fleeting and may not come around often, DeJoseph said.
In fact, many of these adaptations that enable children to survive or thrive in stressful or unpredictable settings may still have downsides. For instance, being very attuned to threats may increase your chance of surviving in dangerous environments, but hypervigilance can lead to heightened anxiety in safe environments.
Uncovering stress-adapted skills
This budding field is "still very broad," and researchers are still mapping out the repertoire of skills that emerge from adversity, DeJoseph said. But a flurry of research has begun to home in on some of those skills.
However, it is now clear that some stress-adapted skills require a bit of coaxing to reveal themselves. That's because these skills are specific to the contexts in which they developed, Ellis said, meaning they are more likely to appear in threatening or uncertain situations.
Participants who reported having more unpredictable childhoods and read about economic uncertainty tended to be better at updating their working memory than children with more stable upbringings. But the results flipped for those who had unpredictable childhoods and read about computer technology. This suggests the ability to detect and quickly process information in a changeable environment can shine in situations that may call for it, the researchers suggested.
A 2022 study found that teenagers who had been exposed to high levels of violence and poverty in the past scored lower when generic shapes, like squares and triangles, were used, but almost caught up to peers who experienced relatively lower adversity when more relevant shapes, like buses, dollar bills and faces were used.
People displaced after a balcony collapse at the "Via Celeste" building, in the Scampia district of Italy. Scampia faces poverty, high crime and institutional neglect, yet in one study, people who lived there showed better working memory and short-term memory than those who came from more affluent neighborhoods. (Image credit: Marco Cantile via Getty Images)
Because this is a young field, mixed results are cropping up everywhere. For example, research on 800 Dutch adults found inconsistent links between current adverse environments and performance on working-memory tasks. Other research from the same team also revealed that exposure to threats in childhood and adulthood was associated with slower information processing across a range of tasks but was not linked with the ability to suppress impulsive actions or quickly shift attention.
Moreover, as with a lot of other psychological research, the studies into stress-adapted skills have been conducted predominantly in "WEIRD" populations — that is, with people from Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic societies. People from non-WEIRD populations have been "grossly understudied," Nweze said, and there must be a concerted effort to correct this imbalance. "There is a need to understand whether there is cultural generalizability of these findings," he said.
The children living in orphanages or foster homes performed either just as well as or better than the children living with their biological parents. These results were surprising because they bucked the trend of prior studies finding that institutionalized children were worse at inhibiting their impulses, Nweze said.
What's not clear is how a dangerous, deprived or highly changeable childhood mediates these changes in the brain.
Early life adversity shapes brain development
Monk and his team have found that 15-year-olds who had been exposed to relatively high levels of adversity throughout childhood had different neural connectivity than teens with comparatively low or medium exposure. Adversity in this context included experiences such as exposure to emotional and physical abuse, and to neighborhood and parental violence.
The salience network — which includes the amygdala, the region involved in processing danger and emotions — was less densely connected.
Because it is impossible — and unethical — to randomly allocate children to high- and low-adversity settings, these studies can't show that adversity causes these brain differences. "We're not able to talk about causation," Monk said. "We're talking about one point in time correlating with another point in time."
"New studies could incorporate appropriate measures to specifically test for the neural bases of hidden talents and their development," Ellis and his colleagues wrote in a book on hidden talents.
The $64,000 question
Translating research on hidden strengths into education policy that improves outcomes is the $64 billion question. (Image credit: Edmund D. Fountain for The Washington Post /Getty Images)
Although the research is intriguing, experts acknowledged that it isn't robust enough yet to show exactly which skills stress brings out — let alone to inform policy or educational recommendations. "I feel like we need to get the science a bit more solid before it makes sense to put those in real-world settings," DeJoseph said.
Ellis said the discovery that some skills can be equalized or enhanced when the right materials or contexts are employed could be the answer to "the $64,000 question, or more like the $64 billion question: how do you address the disparity in educational success and career success among people from rich versus poor backgrounds?"
Exclusive to Live Science ProStill, simply moving away from assumptions that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are "broken" could have a positive impact.
"Perhaps most strikingly, economically marginalized students earned grades that were more than a quarter of a grade point higher, on average, in courses taught by educators who participated in the strength-based learning group compared to those in the control group," the study authors wrote in the paper. This translated to a difference between a C+ and a B-, which was achieved not by changing curriculum but simply helping teachers better understand their students' identities and strengths.
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